All experiments were approved by the UCLA Chancellor’s

Animal Research Committee. Histopathological analysis Lungs were inflated with 10% neutral buffered formalin at the time of necropsy. Following fixation, tissue samples were embedded in paraffin, sectioned at 5 μm, and stained with hematoxylin-eosin, Giemsa, and Warthin-Starry for light microscopic examination at the Translational Pathology Core Laboratory of UCLA. Sections were scored for pathology by a veterinarian with training and experience in rodent pathology who was blinded to experimental treatment. The degree of inflammation was assigned an arbitrary score of 0 (normal = no inflammation), 1 (minimal = perivascular, peribronchial, or patchy interstitial inflammation involving less than 10% of lung volume), 2 (mild = perivascular, peribronchial, or patchy interstitial inflammation involving 10-20% of lung volume), 3 (moderate = perivascular, selleck screening library peribronchial, patchy interstitial, or diffuse inflammation involving 20-50% of lung volume), and 4 (severe = diffuse inflammation involving more than 50% of lung volume). In vitro adherence assays Human lung epithelial (A549) cells

and Human cervical epithelial (HeLa) cells were grown in F-12 K and DMEM medium, containing 10% fetal calf serum on cover slips in standard 12-well tissue culture plates, respectively. Bacteria in their mid-log phase were added to cell monolayers at a MOI of 200 as previously described [25]. The plates were spun at 200 × g for selleck 5 min and then incubated for 15 min at 37°C. The cells were then washed six times with Hanks’ balanced salts solution, fixed with methanol, stained with Giemsa stain (Polyscience, Warrington, PA) and

visualized by light microscopy. Adherence was quantified by counting the total number of bacteria per eukaryotic cell in at least three microscopic fields from two separate experiments. Trypsin digestion of polypeptides for mass spectrometry For secretome analysis by mass spectrometry, bacteria were cultured in SS media overnight and were then sub-cultured in SS media to an optical density at 600 nm of ~1.0. A 5 ml aliquot was removed and centrifuged at 10,000 x g at 4°C for 10 min to remove bacterial cells. The resulting supernatant, containing proteins secreted into the culture medium, Ponatinib manufacturer was filtered through a 0.2 μm membrane to remove contaminating bacterial cells. The filtered supernatants were then desalted and concentrated using a centrifugal filter device (Amicon Ultra-3 K, Millipore) into ~300 μl of 50 mM ammonium bicarbonate buffer. The samples were reduced by incubation in 10 mM dithiotreitol (DTT) in 50 mM ammonium bicarbonate at 37°C for 1 h. They were then alkylated by adding 55 mM iodoacetamide in 50 mM ammonium bicarbonate and incubated at 37°C in dark for 1 h. Finally, the samples were digested at 37°C overnight with addition of 75 ng trypsin (EC 3.4.21.4, Promega) in 50 mM ammonium bicarbonate.