Several genes responsible for epilepsy-associated MCDs have been identified over the past two decades (Table 5),[33, 48] and the functions of these genes have been

intensively studied, mostly in transgenic or knockout mice, allowing for better understanding of the molecular pathomechanisms of each disorder.[48] FCD of Taylor type (T-FCD),[49] a subset of MCDs, has been known to be strongly associated with infantile spasms and medically intractable epilepsy in young children, accounting for 20% of epilepsy patients in some previous reports.[50, Roxadustat 51] Surgical resection of epileptogenic lesions has evolved as an efficient strategy in the treatment of patients with T-FCD.[52, 53] The lesion is histologically characterized by cortical laminar disorganization and the presence of dysmorphic neurons with/without characteristic large gemistocytic astrocyte-like “balloon cells (BCs)”, and has been classified in some recent proposals as “severe” FCD in the ULCA classification,[54]

FCD type IIA (without BC)/IIB (with BC) in Palmini’s classification[55] or FCD type IIa (without BC)/IIb (with BC) Selleck Hydroxychloroquine in ILAE classification.[56] These histological features are very similar to those seen in cortical tubers of tuberous sclerosis complex (TSC-tubers) (Fig. 6),[48, 57] despite different clinical presentations. Recent evidence has suggested factors significant in the morphogenesis of abnormal cells in dysplastic cortex of TSC-tubers and FCD type IIb, including aberrant expression of cytoskeletal proteins,[58, 59] stem cell markers such as nestin,[60] CD34 class II,[61] neurotrophin receptors,[62] fibroblast growth factor-2[63, 64] and cortical

layer markers,[65] as well as altered mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) signaling pathways.[66, 67] Some of these studies, at least from the neuropathological point of view, provided supportive evidence that BCs and dysmorphic neurons represent disturbed gliogenesis Immune system from matrix cells or radial glia and disturbed maturation of cortical neurons from migrating neuroblasts or intermediate progenitor cells, respectively. These results may also support the “dysmature developmental hypothesis” that epileptogenesis in FCD type II is the consequence of local interactions of dysmature cells having immature cellular and synaptic properties with normal post-natal neurons.[68] The presence of dysplastic oligodendroglial cells has also been suggested in MCDs with BC (TSC-tubers and FCD type IIb).