This latter point suggested that the overall increase in number of age-affected genes in depressed subjects may not correspond to de novo age

effects, but rather to amplified subthreshold events that were already present in control subjects. So, while that study provided molecular evidence in support of an accelerated brain aging hypothesis in depression, the observed combination of robust (eg, BDNF pathway) and more modest effects on different sets of genes and biological pathways also suggest a heterogeneous impact of age and disease effects on cellular Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical functions. Alternatively, the molecular Vismodegib dosing correlates of aging may represent variable sets of biological age-dependent events, each with their own mediators and modulators and with potential specificities in rates of age-related changes. Proposed model for age-by-disease molecular interactions The physiological Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical and functional output of any biological system represents the integration of events occurring at the levels of genes, molecules, cells, microcircuits, and neural networks, and constant feedback across

these biological scales contributes to the maintenance of homeostasis in the face of a changing environment. In the context of aging, it is not known which changes represent primary adaptive events that are Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical necessary to maintain homeostasis, and which represent reactive processes and reduced capacity for repair against deleterious events, such as increased Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical oxidative damage, inflammation and accumulation of damaged macromolecules, specifically affecting non-dividing neurons. However, the nature of age-dependent genes and the directions of their expression change with age strongly suggest that the human brain progressively moves with advancing age towards a state that is biologically more consistent with those observed in the context of neuropsychiatric and neurological disorders.20 However, the relative Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical rates of occurrence of psychopathology in elderly subjects also demonstrate that the age-dependent

and disease-promoting changes in the expression of disease-related genes are not sufficient to induce overt pathophysiology and associated Carfilzomib disease symptoms. For instance, extrapolating for studies in postmortem subjects, reduced BDNF, and markers of dendritic inhibition are probably common in many elderly subjects. One can speculate that these changes may actually be appropriate for the biological landscape of an elderly subject, but similar changes in a younger biological context may induce neural network dysfunctions and deficiencies in information processing and mood regulation, resulting in depression in midlife subjects, for instance. Hence, deviations from predicted trajectories and associated biological context may be more critical than expression changes per se.