Few people expressed willingness to work as maintenance staff because they felt that the NP did not pay enough and also that it was demeaning work. Referring to Mu Koh Surin, one participant told us: “The NP pays them 100 baht per day to cook, clean and run boat service. It is not enough.” In addition, some participants saw click here the maintenance positions as undignified: “Maybe in 20 to 30 years, I will be collecting garbage like the Moken on Surin. Assets form the basis of livelihoods. Livelihood assets were felt to be influenced by the NMPs in two ways. First, the policies, institutions and processes of the NMPs directly influenced access to assets. Second, livelihood outcomes could further

support or undermine future access to assets. For example, the wealth earned from Icotinib tourism development could promote further local development and gains or be centralized with a wealthy external elite. Due to length restrictions, it is beyond the purview of the current paper to provide

specific narratives or examples but an overview of perceptions of how livelihood resources are impacted by the NMP is provided in Table 4. In summation, while NMPs are perceived to undermine access to resources necessary for traditional livelihoods, it appears that DNP and NMP managers do not consider adequately the means (assets) that are required to ensure that locals benefit from alternative livelihoods. For example, according to community respondents DNP management and policies fail to consider local values and development needs, support local capacity building, or promote local businesses. Qualitative and quantitative perceptions of participants differed on the perceived conservation outcomes of the

NMPs, particularly regarding the marine environment. It was agreed across all sites that terrestrial STK38 conservation was part of the mandate of the DNP. However, qualitative perceptions of the effectiveness of terrestrial conservation differed amongst areas. Interviewees in villages in Mu Koh Ranong and Ao Phang Nga NMPs all thought that the national park would result in protection of forested areas on the islands. Conversely, the majority of interview participants near the proposed Koh Rah-Koh Phrathong NMP believed that the national park would not protect the forested area effectively. This belief was alleged to be true for two reasons: there would be encroachment by outside businessmen for plantations and there would be illegal logging and hunting by the protected area superintendents and managers. Interviews revealed widespread confusion about whether the DNP mandate included the protection or management of the marine environment. Many interviewees expressed sentiments such as “The islands are under DNP, but there is no control over the sea” or “If there were new rules, we would know”.

Second, we evaluated the difference

in other gastrointestinal and constitutional toxicity observed between treatments when dogs were fed and fasted. No significant difference between the incidence and scores of appetite, diarrhea, or activity was evident between treatments when first dose or paired data were analyzed (Table 2). Similarly, no differences in the incidence or scores of neutropenia or thrombocytopenia were detected (Table 2). Lastly, there was no significant difference www.selleckchem.com/products/MDV3100.html in IGF-1 concentration between when dogs were fed or fasted before treatment (Table 2 and Figure 2). To the authors’ knowledge, this study is the first randomized prospective clinical evaluation of the effects of selleck chemical fasting on the incidence of CINV in cancer-bearing patients. Here, we reported our findings assessing the impact of fasting for 18 hours before and 6 hours after doxorubicin chemotherapy in cancer-bearing dogs. Our data suggest that fasting for 24 hours significantly reduces the incidence of vomiting in dogs treated with doxorubicin but did not appear to affect nausea or other potential adverse effects commonly seen in doxorubicin-treated cancer-bearing dogs. The effect of fasting on the modulation of digestive tract cellular proliferation has long been known [10] and [11]. Theoretically, by blocking

gastrointestinal cells in the G1

phase with fasting, these cells should be less sensitive to the effects of doxorubicin, which is preferentially toxic to cells in the S phase [8] and [9]. In addition to the effects of fasting on the cell cycle, it also appears that protection is elicited in part by other mechanisms that likely alter gene expression [18]. In one study, protection of mice from doxorubicin toxicity by fasting before treatment appeared to be mediated by a reduction in circulating IGF-1 levels such that administration of IGF-1 abolished the protective effect of fasting [18]. Furthermore, mouse embryonic fibroblasts grown to confluence in vitro and then treated with much doxorubicin were found to be protected from cell killing by IGF-1 receptor deletion compared to cells that overexpressed IGF-1 receptor [18]. In this case, the proliferation rate was kept relatively constant by the confluence of the cells in culture and therefore cytoprotection appeared to be independent of the cell cycle. Supporting the notion that fasting before chemotherapy might result in reduced clinical toxicity are several studies in mice illustrating that cellular stress resistance is elicited by fasting [13] and [18]. In one report, etoposide administered at 80 mg/kg killed 43% of control mice compared to 6% of mice that were fasted for 48 hours before administration [13].

Máscaras e óculos de proteção ou visores faciais completos. Aventais de plástico com mangas ou batas impermeáveis, com mangas compridas e punho. Todos os profissionais Neratinib de saúde devem utilizar o EPI de acordo com a avaliação de risco efetuada. Todos os profissionais envolvidos na utilização de químicos deverão estar informados acerca dos riscos que podem ocorrer durante a utilização destes produtos. Deve existir um procedimento escrito e datado para a eliminação segura dos resíduos líquidos com risco biológico ou químico de acordo com as Fichas

de Dados de Segurança dos detergentes e desinfetantes utilizados e a legislação em vigor. O procedimento deve ser revisto a cada 3 anos. Deve existir um procedimento escrito e datado para situações de derramamentos de químicos. O procedimento deve ser revisto a cada 3 anos. Deve existir um procedimento escrito e datado para situações de derramamentos de líquidos orgânicos. O procedimento deve ser revisto a cada 3 anos. Todos os profissionais que realizam o

reprocessamento BMS-754807 ic50 devem ser qualificados e ter formação e treino no manuseamento do material endoscópico e no cumprimento das precauções básicas para a prevenção e controlo de infeção. Cat. IA 1, 2, 8 and 9 É essencial que haja prática regular e formação contínua a fim de os profissionais se manterem atualizados. Mesmo sendo recomendável o uso de RAE, os profissionais devem ser treinados em métodos manuais a fim de garantir o reprocessamento nas pequenas UED assim como em caso de falha mecânica, de forma a não colocar em causa a eficácia do processo e a segurança do utente e dos profissionais. Deve ser realizada

formação interna obrigatória bienal e sempre que se verifiquem alterações significativas na área do reprocessamento, para todos os profissionais triclocarban intervenientes no processo. Toda a formação deve ser registada. As instruções de todo o material endoscópico, as políticas e procedimentos, assim como as Fichas de Dados de Segurança dos produtos devem estar acessíveis aos profissionais. A maioria das diretrizes para reprocessamento do endoscópio indica 6 passos: 1) Limpeza a. Preliminar Os endoscópios que entram em contacto com membranas mucosas, são classificados como artigo semicrítico e devem ser submetidos no mínimo a desinfeção de alto nível após cada utilização (Cat. IA 1, 5, 6, 9, 10, 11 and 12) O reprocessamento dos endoscópios deve ser realizado por profissionais treinados e numa zona específica para o mesmo logo após cada procedimento. O reprocessamento dos endoscópios deve ser realizado entre procedimentos e no fim de cada sessão1. O reprocessamento no início de cada sessão irá depender do tipo de armazenamento dos endoscópios.

Images were captured with a Nikon Eclipse TE2000-U fluorescence microscope (Nikon Inc.). For immunofluoroscence, Mice were perfused with 4% paraformaldehyde and brains dissected and placed in PFA overnight. Tissue was then transferred to glucose for 48 h.

Following cryosectioning, slices were permeabilized (0.1% Tween-20 in PBS, 5 min), and non-specific binding of antibodies was blocked with PBS/5.0% BSA for 1 h. Slices were probed with primary antibodies and incubated overnight at 4 °C. The following antibodies were used: (1:500, Neuron Signaling, Danvers, MA, USA): Anti-GFAP, Anti-NeuN. After a washing step (PBS, 5 min), slices were counterstained with AlexaFluor-conjugated secondary antibodies (1:1000, 1 h, RT, PBS/5% BSA; Molecular Probes, Eugene, OR, USA), washed again and mounted onto slides with Prolong Gold Antifade reagent containing DAPI (molecular probes). Stained slides were visualized with a Nikon Eclipse R428 TE2000-U fluorescence microscope (Nikon Inc.). For MRI, experiments were conducted at the Research Imaging Institute using a horizontal 7T Biospec system (BrukerBioSpin, Ettlingen, Germany) and ParaVision 5 software. A small circular surface coil (ID = 1.1 cm) was placed on top of the head. Mice were imaged under 1.2% isoflurane with spontaneous breathing after placement

in a custom-made animal holder with ear and mouth bars. Respiration rate (80–130 bpm) and rectal temperature (37 ± 0.5 °C) were continuously monitored

and maintained within normal physiological ranges unless otherwise perturbed. PD98059 High-resolution (isotropic 100 μm), T1-weighted images were acquired using 3D FLASH sequence (scan parameters: with echo time (TE) 5.1 ms, repetition time (TR) 50 ms, flip angle of 30°, field of view (FOV) of 11 mm × 11 mm × 11 mm, matrix size 1024 × 1024 × 1024). Preprocessing consisted of removing non-brain tissues and global spatial normalization. The GM and WM were separated using FMRIB Software Library (FSL) packet (EPSRC, UK). The GM and WM volumes were determined using the Multi-Image Analysis GUI (MANGO) software (http://ric.uthscsa.edu/mango). Neuromuscular function was tested using Rotamex 4/8 (Columbus Instruments, Columbus, OH). Each mouse was trained for five consecutive days (six trails/day) where the speed of the rotor BCKDHB was accelerated from 4 to 40 rpm with an acceleration of 0.2 rpm/s. Twenty-four hours after the last training session, the mice were tested in a probe trial consisting of six trials as previously described. The latency to fall was then recorded. Forelimb muscle strength was determined by measuring peak force (in pounds) using the Digital Grip Strength meter equipped with a Hind Limb Pull Bar Assembly (Columbus Instruments, Columbus, OH). Mice are allowed to grip the metal grids of a grip meter with their forepaws, and gently pulled backwards by the tail until they could no longer hold the grids. The peak grip force observed in 10 trials was recorded [24].

4A and B). The analysis of MCP-1 gene synthesis in tracheal tissue showed lower levels of MCP-1 mRNA in tissue collected from HQ-exposed animals than in tracheal tissue collected from vehicle-exposed mice ( Fig. 4C and D).

A direct action of HQ on chemoattractant Ibrutinib purchase secretion was observed as reduced levels of MCP-1 were found in the supernatant of in vitro HQ-treated naive AMs ( Fig. 5A) and tracheal tissue ( Fig. 5B). It is noteworthy that the effect does not reflect cell toxicity, as HQ incubation did not induce AMs death, assessed by trypan blue exclusion assay (data not shown). In order to determine the associations between the actions of in vivo HQ exposure on MCP-1 secretion and mononuclear cell migration, THP-1 monocytic cells were used in a Boyden chamber. Using the concentrations of MCP-1 detected in tracheal tissue from animals exposed to vehicle (0.9 ng/ml) or to HQ (0.1 ng/ml) as chemotactic agents, it was observed that MCP-1 induces a dose-related direct migration of mononuclear cells ( Fig. 6). The increase in levels of environmental pollution has been attributed not only to advances in technology but also to anthropogenic activities. Epidemiological studies have associated the increase in air pollutants with respiratory, cardiac and metabolic diseases (Brook and Rajagopalan, 2010, Burgan et al., 2010, Chiba and Abe, 2003, Pearce and Braverman, 2009 and Yang

and Omaye, 2009). In this context, in vivo experimental studies have helped to increase knowledge about the mechanisms of air pollutant toxicity. The actions of HQ on mechanisms related to mononuclear cell migration find protocol to the LPS-inflamed lung are described herein and seem to be dependent on MCP-1 secretion by resident lung cells. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first evidence of in vivo HQ toxicity heptaminol on MCP-1 production. According to McGregor (2007), there is limited evidence showing the toxic actions of HQ after in vivo exposure, which may have contributed to the inadequate classification of HQ as being non-carcinogenic to humans (group 3) by the International

Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC). Our research group used in vivo HQ exposure methods that do not impair haematopoiesis and do not induce DNA adduction in lung tissue, both known as HQ-toxicity biological end points. However, in vivo HQ-exposure mainly causes harmful actions during host defence ( Ferreira et al., 2006, Macedo et al., 2007 and Ribeiro et al., 2011). The National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) states that 2 mg/m3 (0.44 ppm) is the threshold limit value–threshold weighted average (TLV–TWA) for human HQ exposure (NIOSH, 1994). Based on this information and considering HQ toxicity in mice (Snyder, 2002, Snyder, 2004 and Snyder, 2007), the concentrations of HQ used in the current study were 10 times lower (25 ppm = 0.

For this purpose, genomic technologies are a valuable resource and can assist in producing rapid and rigorous information about ecosystem functioning, at a lower cost than traditional approaches. In this context, we propose the following steps towards the implementation of molecular methods in marine monitoring: (1) Pilot studies PCI-32765 and cost-benefit analyzes comparing molecular with traditional methods. Sarah J. Bourlat and Matthias Obst are funded by the Marine Genomics for Users EU FP7 project (Coordination

and support action, call FP7-KBBE-2010-4) Grant No. 266055. Special thanks go to Bernard Kloareg and Damien Guiffant for coordinating the project. Angel Borja and Naiara Rodríguez-Ezpeleta are supported by the project DEVOTES (DEVelopment Of innovative Tools for understanding marine biodiversity and assessing good Environmental Status) funded by the EU 7th FP ‘The Ocean for Tomorrow’ Theme (Grant agreement No. 308392), http://www.devotes-project.eu”. David Murphy, Jan-Bart Calewaert, Andris Andrusaitis, Nikolaos Zampoukas, Gert Verreet, Gunnar Gerdts, and Chuck Cook are thanked for their input in the project and/or their comments on the manuscript. This article is a deliverable of the stakeholder working group in the Genomic Observatories Network (http://www.genomicobservatories.org/). GDC-0973 manufacturer “
“Fish farming using domestic sewage water i.e. grey water culture,

has been practiced for centuries by many cultures across the world (WHO, 1989, FAO-ALCOM, 1994, Nandeesha, 2002 and Lee et al., 2010). With the rapid population growth and increasing urbanization wastewater reuse in aquaculture and agriculture is considered to play an important role

in reducing the waste product, saving the water, particularly when fresh water resources are fast Selleck MG 132 depleting and closing the nutrient cycle (WHO, 1989). The massive amounts of nutrients in sewage serve as an ideal fertilizer for planktons and algae to flourish and enhance the productivity of the aquatic ecosystem, which serves as valuable food source for fish and other aquatic organisms (WHO, 1989, FAO-ALCOM, 1994 and Lee et al., 2010). However, in today’s industrialized society sewage water, raw or even treated, contains a vast numbers of deleterious xenobiotics including heavy metals, pesticides and industrial chemicals, and pathogens, that bio-accumulate in marine organisms and may cause toxicity to fish, handlers and eventually the consumers (Hejkal et al., 1983, WHO, 1989, Almroth et al., 2008 and Stoliar and Lushchak, 2012). One potential solution to farming fish in sewage water, without residual foul odor and with acceptable levels of harmful chemical toxins and pathogens in the fish body, is a cleaning/detoxification process called “depuration”, in which toxins and pathogens are allowed to flush out by keeping the fish in clean water for at least 2–3 weeks before harvest (WHO, 1989, FAO-ALCOM, 1994 and Lee et al., 2010).

For the purpose of this study, white potatoes included the following: baked, boiled, fried, hash-browned, home-fried, mashed, roasted, salad, scalloped, stuffed, and with sauce. Because potato chips are frequently Palbociclib eaten as a snack, rather than as part of a full meal, they were not included in the analyses. Appropriate survey weights were used to calculate average consumption of DF across sex, race/ethnicity, family income groups, and poverty threshold. Race/ethnicity groupings included non-Hispanic

blacks, non-Hispanic whites, all Hispanic, and other race/ethnicity. Income was examined using categories of household income and categories of poverty-to-income ratio. Annual household income categories included the following: (1) less than $25 000, (2) $25 000 to $74 999, and (3) more than $75 000. Poverty threshold categories were as follows: (1) less than 131% of poverty, (2) 131% Alectinib ic50 to 185% of poverty, and (3) more than 185% of the poverty threshold. Group means for each data cycle of NHANES were estimated in STATA 9 using the “svyreg” procedure to adjust for the complex design of the survey and the “subpop” option to calculate the group means for the age groups [17]. This procedure used a Taylor linearization approach to correct the estimated

standard errors for survey design effects. The statistical significance of differences of mean intakes (P < .05) was calculated using the STATA “test” procedure that calculates the probability that any 2 estimated means are equal to one another. Weighted samples showed that among children and adolescents aged 2 to 19 years, about 57% were non-Hispanic white; 14%, non-Hispanic black; 21%, Hispanic; and 8%, other races/ethnicities (Table 1). Among children

and adolescents aged 2 to 19 years, a greater percentage of Hispanic males were overweight compared with non-Hispanic white males and males of other races/ethnicities. Significantly more non-Hispanic black and Hispanic females were overweight than non-Hispanic white females. others There was a significantly greater percentage of non-Hispanic black and Hispanic children who were living in households with less than $25 000 annual income and at less than 131% of the poverty threshold compared with non-Hispanic whites. Among adults, the race/ethnicity percentages are slightly different from they were for children: nearly 70% were non-Hispanic white; 11%, non-Hispanic black; 14%, Hispanic; and 6%, other races/ethnicities. Average body mass index (BMI) was significantly higher for non-Hispanic black and Hispanic females than it was for non-Hispanic whites and females of other races/ethnicities. Males and females of other races/ethnicities had significantly lower average BMI than did non-Hispanic white, non-Hispanic black, and Hispanic males and females.

To validate inflammatory cytokine data observed in the ELISA analysis, we examined the effect of AG on the expression of inflammatory cytokine

genes in both the acute (Day 14) and chronic (Day buy Crenolanib 90) phases. We used RT-PCR to test the effects of AG on the target genes in colon tissues, which were collected on Day 14 and Day 90. As shown in Fig. 6A, in the acute phase (Day 14), the expression of six inflammatory cytokines (IL-1α, IL-1β, IL-6, IFN-γ, G-CSF, and GM-CSF) in the model group is much higher than in the control group (all p < 0.001). Compared to the model, ginseng treatment significantly downregulated the expression of the tested inflammatory cytokines (all p < 0.01). In the chronic phase (Day 90), similar effects were also observed, and AG treatment more significantly inhibited inflammatory cytokine expression (all p < 0.001 vs. model; Fig. 6B). This result indicate that the oral administration of AG transcriptionally repressed inflammatory cytokines in the gut tissue. Colorectal cancer is the second leading cause of cancer-related

death in the West [2] and [23]. This cancer also remains a foremost cause of morbidity and mortality, a significant contributor to the burden of disease of global public health. Inflammatory bowel disease, including ulcerative colitis and Crohn’s disease, is a risk factor for colon cancer initiation and development [10] and [11]. Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory SRT1720 research buy drugs can reduce colon cancer tumorigenesis. For example, celecoxib has potent preventive and therapeutic effects on the cancer [24]. Concerns about the risks of long-term use of such drugs, however, make

this form of chemoprevention unsuitable as a general recommendation [25] and [26]. Epidemiological, experimental, and clinical studies provide evidence that inflammatory phytochemicals possess unique modes of action against cancer development and growth VAV2 [27], [28] and [29]. In the present study, the effects of AG were investigated, as one of the efforts to search for the botanical sources against this significant medical problem. Experimentally, AOM (a mutagenic agent) and/or DSS (a proinflammatory reagent) have often been used in colorectal cancer chemoprevention animal studies [15], [30], [31] and [32]. In this study we used the AOM/DSS mouse model to mimic the inflamed colon and carcinogenesis conditions in humans [15] and [33]. There were two observation phases in this study. The acute phase (Day 1–14) reflected the manifestation of inflammatory colitis, measured by DAI (Fig. 3). The chronic phase (up to 90 days) revealed the colon carcinogenesis (Fig. 4), measured by colon tumor number and tumor load. Compared with the model group, we observed that AG treatment significantly attenuated the experimental colitis.

Support and data provided by the Japanese Ministry of Environment (http://www.env.go.jp/en/) were greatly appreciated. LSCE (Laboratoire des Sciences du Climat et de l’Environnement) contribution No. 5057. SPOT-Image and the French national CNES-ISIS (Centre National d’Etudes Spatiales – Incentive for the Scientific use of Images from the SPOT system) program are also acknowledged for providing the SPOT data. “
“River deltas are constructed with surplus fluvial sediment that is not washed away by waves and currents or drowned by the sea. The waterlogged,

low gradient deltaic landscapes favor development of marshes and mangroves, which in turn, contribute organic materials to the delta. In natural conditions, deltas are dynamic systems that adapt to changes in boundary conditions

by advancing, learn more retreating, switching, aggrading, and/or drowning. However, most modern deltas are constrained in place by societal needs such as protecting residents, resources, and infrastructure or preserving biodiversity and ecosystem services. Human activities over the last century have inadvertently led to conditions that are unfavorable for deltas (Ericson et al., 2006 and Syvitski et al., 2009). New sediment input has been severely curtailed by trapping behind river dams. Distribution of the remaining sediment load across deltas or along their shores has been altered by engineering works. And accelerating eustatic sea level rise combined with anthropogenic subsidence favors marine flooding that surpasses the normal rate of sediment accumulation, leading in time to permanent drowning of extensive regions of the delta plains. Restoration is envisioned for extensively see more altered deltas (e.g., Day et al., 2007, Kim et al.,

2009, Allison and Meselhe, 2010 and Paola et al., 2011), but in these Cisplatin mw hostile conditions virtually all deltas are becoming unstable and require strategies for maintenance. Availability of sediments is the first order concern for delta maintenance. Sediment budgets are, however, poorly constrained for most deltas (Blum and Roberts, 2009 and references therein). We know that fluvial sediments feed the delta plain (topset) and the nearshore delta front zone (foreset) contributing to aggradation and progradation respectively, but only limited quantitative information exists on the laws governing this sediment partition (Paola et al., 2011 and references therein). Except for deltas built in protective embayments (e.g., Stouthamer et al., 2011), the trapping efficiency appears remarkably small as over 50% of the total load may escape to the shelf and beyond (Kim et al., 2009 and Liu et al., 2009). Therefore, a key strategy for delta maintenance is a deliberate and rational sediment management that would optimize the trapping efficiency on the delta plain (e.g., Day et al., 2007, Kim et al., 2009, Allison and Meselhe, 2010 and Paola et al., 2011) and along the delta coast.

Our recent study using comparative analysis of expressed sequence

tags Cell Cycle inhibitor (ESTs) [7] showed that P. ginseng and American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius L.) concurrently experienced two rounds of genome duplication events based on the number of substitutions per synonymous site (Ks) of paralogous gene pairs. The more recent event is estimated to have occurred at Ks = 0.02–0.04, which corresponds to about 1.6–3.3 million years ago based on adopting a synonymous substitution rate of 6.1 × 10−9 substitutions/synonymous site/year [8]. However, genomic sequence-based clues and features have not yet been described to uncover the duplicated genome structure for P. ginseng. We have developed large numbers of simple sequence repeat (SSR) markers designed from ESTs and genomic sequences for mapping and cultivar authentication. When we amplified ginseng genomic DNA www.selleckchem.com/products/17-AAG(Geldanamycin).html with SSR markers, we observed multiple bands from almost all of the primer pairs [9] and [10]. These phenomena

cannot be abolished by changing polymerase chain reaction (PCR) conditions and extending primer length. In other reports on ginseng SSR markers, the number of alleles ranged from two to nine and the observed heterozygosity of markers is usually greater than 0.5 [11], [12] and [13]. These results show that multiple bands are consistently generated with ginseng genomic DNA; whether the multiple bands originate from different loci or the same locus can be confusing. For instance, two bands appearing in one cultivar could be misinterpreted as representing a heterozygous form even though they were derived from two independent loci. Meanwhile, chloroplast genome sequence-based markers produced clear single bands from ginseng genomic DNA [14], which may indicate that the recently duplicated nuclear genome causes multiple bands to be coincidently amplified by the same primer set. This study was conducted Epothilone B (EPO906, Patupilone) to examine whether

the multiple band patterns of PCR products are associated with the genome duplication of P. ginseng. We sequenced SSR bands produced by five EST-SSR markers that were previously selected as the best and most clearly polymorphic SSR markers to authenticate ginseng cultivars in a screening of more than 200 SSR markers [10]. Sequence comparisons of SSR bands derived from multiple loci and multiple alleles showed the sequence level differences in the duplicated genome and thus promoted our understanding of genomics and whole genome sequencing of P. ginseng. Leaf samples of six ginseng cultivars (Chunpoong, Yunpoong, Sunpoong, Sunone, Sunun, and Gopoong) were collected from a research field of Seoul National University, Suwon, Korea. The total DNA of the samples was extracted by modified cetyltrimethylammonium bromide methods [15]. Five EST-SSR markers (gm47n, gm45n, gm129, gm175, and gm184) that have shown clear polymorphism among Korean ginseng cultivars in previous work [9] and [10] were used for amplification in several cultivars showing different genotypes.